Publication

An Anthology of Ismaili Literature: A Shi‘i Vision of Islam

I.B. Tauris in association with the Institute of Ismaili Studies, 2008

ISBN HardBack:

978 1 84511 794 8

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The word ‘anthology’ comes from the Greek for ‘flower-gathering’. An Anthology of Ismaili Literature: A Shi‘i Vision of Islam is the first collection of the literary ‘flowers’ of the Ismaili tradition, offering up to its readers glimpses of a literary tradition as rich and varied as it is little-known. The extracts, drawn from all periods of the Ismailis’ pre-modern history, reflect the plural and multi-ethnic history of the community and display a remarkable diversity in style and genre.

As Azim Nanji points out in his foreword, the impulse to anthologise has a hallowed history in Muslim literature. Muslims have long compiled collections of hadith, biographies, histories, poetry and commentaries as ways of preserving and systematising their heritages. The present volume follows in that tradition, albeit supplemented with the full apparatus of modern scholarship. With sections on ‘History and Memoir’, ‘Faith and Thought’, and ‘Poetry’, An Anthology of Ismaili Literature introduces its readers to the diverse genres of pre-modern Ismaili writing and to the circumstances in which they were produced.

The book opens with a substantial essay on Ismaili history and literary traditions by Farhad Daftary. The first section of historical extracts begins with the times of uncertainty that preceded the establishment of Fatimid rule in Egypt, as chronicled by the 10th century da‘i and author Ibn al-Haytham. Scenes from the days of the earliest Fatimid Imam-Caliph al-Mahdi (d. 322 AH/934 CE) are retold by his faithful chamberlain Ja‘far and by the renowned jurist and author, al-Qadi al-Nu‘man (d. 363 AH/974 CE). We hear more about the Qadi and the last imam of his time, Imam-Caliph al-Mu‘izz (r. 341-365 AH/953-975 CE), in the words of the 15th-century Tayyibi author Idris Imad al-Din. Two of the greatest luminaries of the 11th-century Ismaili da‘wa have also left detailed accounts of their travels. The autobiography of al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi (d. 470 AH/1078 CE) includes a gripping account of his escape from the hostile kingdom of the Buyids to safety in the Fatimid realms, an excerpt from which is included here. Roughly at the same time, Nasir-i Khusraw (d. after 462 AH/1070 CE) made a long spiritual journey from Persia to Egypt, then ruled by the Imam-Caliph al-Mustansir bi’llah (d. 487 AH/1094 CE). Here we include his famous description of Old Cairo and his account of the imam-caliph’s rule, in which justice was available to all, regardless of their faith. The section ends with chapters from Pir Sabzali’s narrative of a journey to Central Asia in the early 20th century, in which he and his Indian companions toiled through difficult terrain in Chitral and met with local Ismailis who impressed the Indian delegation with their fervent devotion to the imam of the time.

Part Two, on ‘Faith and Thought’, is the heart of the volume, and comprises four sections of reflections by the greatest Ismaili thinkers on fundamental questions of creation, revelation, the imamat, ethics and faith. In the first section are extracts from the work of classical Ismaili thinkers such as Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani (d. around 360 AH/971 CE), Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani (d. after 411 AH/1020 CE) and Nasir-i Khusraw, who argued against the theology of the time by refusing to project any anthropomorphic (human-like) qualities of God, the Originator. To quote one of the editors, Hermann Landolt, these thinkers ‘also set themselves apart from the mainstream philosophical tradition, arguing that ‘existence’ itself belongs to the domain of the originated and thus cannot be applied to the Originator, whose pure identity is beyond intellectual reach.’ This section also contains al-Sijistani’s reflections on the spiritual quality of beauty in nature and art. It ends with an extract from the epistles of the anonymous Brethren of Purity who are believed to have lived in Basra in the mid 10th century. The authors used the natural world to make profound philosophical arguments: here, the parrot, appointed to argue the case for the animals of prey, attempts to explain how animals stand higher in God’s eyes than humans.

The second section consists of reflections on the nature of prophecy and the imamat, many of which affirm the importance of the continued existence of the imamat and its role as a guiding principle down the generations. It begins with al-Sijistani’s demonstration of the universal process of prophetic revelation as an esoteric reflection of the history of mankind itself. The Fatimid da‘i al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi said that ‘…. all the sciences, including the rational ones… are collectively present in the sciences of the prophets’, thus establishing the importance of reason in religion. Human reason, further explains the Ismaili thinker and poet Nasir-i Khusraw, is a trace of the Universal Intellect, and thus does not contradict revelation. Another distinguished Fatimid scholar, Ahmad b. Ibrahim al-Naysaburi (fl. 4th/10th – early 5th/11th century), similarly used rational tools and metaphors from the natural world to explain how the imamat is the pole and foundation of religion. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani explains why the imamat is necessary to carry forward God’s message and the example of His Messenger. The 11th-century Persian hujja Hasan-i Sabbah, affirms, in a fragmentary surviving text, the need for the Ismaili imam as the authoritative teacher who would guide humans towards their spiritual goals. Finally, the thinker Nasir al-Din al-Tusi (d. 672 AH/1274 CE) explains the nature and necessity of the imamat and why it is necessary for the seeker to submit to ‘the wise and perfect man’ to achieve true knowledge.

Several Ismaili texts describe individual journeys in search of spiritual knowledge. The third section begins with the tale of the initiation of a young seeker, excerpted from the account of Ja‘far b. Mansur al-Yaman (d. ca. 346 AH/957 CE), who wrote even before the establishment of the Fatimid caliphate. Next is the account of Nasir al-Din al-Tusi who found himself dissatisfied with various spiritual paths and eventually came to believe in the necessity of a ‘spiritual instructor’ to guide his way to spiritual knowledge. Knowledge itself has an external dimension and an inner, subtle truth. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani explains the need for higher knowledge through the interpretation of scripture and al-Sijistani explains that such knowledge is acquired by the prophets in the form of spiritual inspiration, bypassing the material world. Next are three examples by Ismaili scholars of ta’wil or subtle elucidations that bring out the inner esoteric meanings of Qur’anic phrases and the religious duties of Muslims.

The section on faith and ethics begins with al-Qadi al-Nu‘man’s distinction between iman (faith) and islam (submission) from the start of his magnum opus of Fatimid law, the Da‘a’im al-Islam. This is followed by al-Naysaburi’s ‘code of conduct’ for da‘is, which brings out key aspects of the institutional hierarchy of the Fatimids. From laws and norms to ethics is a natural progression. In a passage on the refinement of character from a text attributed to Nasir al-Din al-Tusi, the author asserts that ethics is governed by the recognition of and reverence for the imam of the time. Al-Tusi also wrote a short treatise on tawalla, ‘solidarity’ and tabarra, ‘dissociation’, which is quoted here in full. This is followed by an extract from a treatise by a 16th-century author, Khayrkhwah-i Harati, who asserts the importance of spiritual edification or ta‘lim and the role of the Ismaili hierarchy in leading believers towards the truth and the divine.

The third part of the volume is devoted to Ismaili poetry, the prime vehicle for devotional expression throughout the generations. As Kutub Kassam explains, poetry discloses ‘the inner, spiritual life of the poets and the communities they represent’. This part is divided into compositions originally produced in Arabic, Persian and the languages of South Asia. The Fatimid period is represented by compositions of the versatile and prolific poet Ibn Hani al-Andalusi (d. 362 AH/973 CE), famed as the ‘Mutanabbi of the Maghrib’, and the more personal, devotional verses of al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi. Nasir-i Khusraw is another one of the greatest poets of the Persian Ismaili tradition. The poems included here demonstrate his devotion to the Ismaili cause as well as his virtuosity and poetic skill. These are followed by compositions by the 13th-century Alamut-based poet Hasan-i Mahmud-i Katib, which express devotion to the imam, and the more astringent, questioning poetry of Nizari Quhistani (d. 720 AH/1320 CE). The lesser-known poets of the post-Alamut era are represented in several compositions dating from the 15th to the 18th century, which demonstrate a continuing devotion to the Ismaili imams even when the community was dispersed and fragmented. The maddah poetry of the Ismailis of Badakhshan, composed largely in Tajik Persian, is represented here in several compositions that reflect the diversity of genres and themes in devotional poetry. Rounding off the volume are selections from the ginans of the South Asian Nizaris, attributed to some of the Ismaili preacher-poets who were active in the region from the 7th AH/13th CE century. Many of the poetic compositions in this part of the anthology continue to be a source of inspiration for Nizari Ismailis today.

Although the IIS has published Ismaili texts and their English translations for over a decade, it is for the first time that a publication brings the range of the tradition to academic and lay readers. Lovers of poetry could turn to Shimmering Light: An Anthology of Ismaili Poetry (1996), translated by F. M. Hunzai and edited by Kutub Kassam. Enthusiasts of Ismaili philosophy could consult the second volume of An Anthology of Philosophy in Persia: Ismaili Thought in the Classical Age edited by Seyyed Hossein Nasr and Mahdi Aminrazavi (2008). The present volume, however, brings to its readers a greater range of genres, new translations from the foremost scholars in the field, and brief contextual introductions to every extract. It is hoped that the bouquet of this anthology will draw readers to further explore the riches and diversity of Ismaili literature.

List of Plates xi

Foreword Azim Nanji xiii

Preface and Acknowledgements xv

Contributors xvii

List of Reprinted Works xxi

List of Abbreviations xxv

Ismaili History and Literary Traditions Farhad Daftary 1

PART ONE: HISTORY AND MEMOIR

Introduction Samira Sheikh 33

1. Ibn al-Haytham: Kitab al-munazarat 35

Ibn al-Haytham meets the da‘i Abu ‘Abd Allah 35

The Proof of the Excellence and Purity of Imam ‘Ali 37

Ibn al-Haytham Takes the Oath of Allegiance 40

The da‘is of the Kutama 41

2. Ja‘far b. ‘Ali: Sirat al-hajib Ja‘far 44

An Incident from al-Mahdi’s Journey to North Africa 44

al-Mahdi Greets his Troops 46

3. al-Qadi al-Nu‘man: Iftitah al-da‘wa 49

al-Mahdi’s Coming from Sijilmasa and his Arrival in Ifriqiya 49

Early Decrees of al-Mahdi 52

Eulogy of al-Mahdi 55

The Administrative System of al-Mahdi 56

4. Idris Imad al-Din: ‘Uyun al-akhbar 59

On the Nurturing of the Imams 59

Under the Guidance of the Imam: al-Qadi al-Nu‘man’s Compositions 62

5. al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi: Sirat al-Mu’ayyad 67

Fleeing from Shiraz to Ahwaz 67

6. Nasir-i Khusraw: Safar-nama 71

A Description of the City of Old Cairo 71

A Description of Sultan’s Banquet 75

7. Pir Sabzali: Madhya Eshiya ni rasik vigato 77

Journey to Central Asia 77

PART TWO: FAITH AND THOUGHT

Introduction Herman Landolt 85

I. GOD AND CREATION

1.Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: al-Risala al-durriyya 89

On the Meaning of tawhid, muwahhid and muwahhad 89

2. Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani: Kashf al-yanabi 121

On the Pure Identity of the Originator 98

The Explanation of the World of Intellect and the World of Soul 99

3. Nasir-i Khusraw: Gushayish wa rahayish 102

Ontology 102

4. Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani: Kashf al-mahjub 111

That the Beauty or Adornment of Nature is Spirtual 111

5. Ikhwan al-Safa: Rasa’il Ikhwan al-Safa’ 113

The Case of the Animals versus Man before the King of the Jinn 113

II. PROPHETHOOD AND IMAMATE

1.Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani: Kash al-mahjub 121

On the Fifth Creation (Prophethood) 121

2.al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi: al-Majalis al-Mu’ayyadiyya 131

Reason and Revelation 131

3. Ahmad b. Ibrahim al-Naysaburi: Kitab ithbat al-imama 142

Affirming the Imamate 135

4. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: al-Masabih fi ithbat al-imama 142

In the Proof of the Imamate and its Necessity 142

5. Hasan-i Sabbah: al-Fusul al-arba‘a 149

The Doctrine of ta‘lim 149

6. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Rawda-yi taslim 153

Concerning the Various Kinds of Submission 153

On Prophethood and Imamate 158

III. INITIATION, KNOWLEDGE AND MEANING

1. Ja‘far b. Mansur al-Yaman: Kitab al-alim wa’l-ghulam 169

Initiation of the Disciple by the Master 169

Conversation between Salih and Abu Malik 174

2. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Sayr wa suluk 180

al-Tusi’s Search for Knowledge 180

3. Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani: Kitab al-yanabi‘ 186

On the Manner of the Transmission of Spiritual Inspiration 186

4. Hamid al-Din al-Kirmani: al-Masabih fi ithbat al-imama 188

In Proof of the Interpretation of the Revelation 188

5. al-Qadi al-Nu‘man: Asas al-ta’wil 192

The Story of Job 192

6. Abu Ya‘qub al-Sijistani: Kitab al-yanabi‘ 195

On the Meaning of the Profession of Faith 195

On the Meaning of the Cross 197

On the Agreement of the Cross with the Profession of Faith 197

7. Nasir-i Khusraw: Wajh-i din 199

On the Establishment of Knowledge 199

On the Description of the Subtle Spiritual World 200

On the Necessity of Obedience to the Imam of the Time 203

On the ta’wil of Inna li’llahi wa-inna ilayhi raji‘un (We Belong to Allah and unto Him we Return) 207

IV. FAITH AND ETHICS

1. al-Qadi al-Nu‘man: Da‘a’im al-Islam 211

On Faith (iman) 211

On the Distinction between iman (Faith) and islam (Submission) 219

2. Ahmad b. Ibrahim al-Naysaburi: al-Risala al-mujaza 222

Qualifications for the da‘wa 222

Qualifications for a da‘i 226

3. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Rawda-yi taslim 234

On the Refinement of Character 234

4. Nasir al-Din al-Tusi: Tawalla wa tabarra 241

Solidarity and Dissociation 241

5. Khayrkhwah-i Harati: Risala 247

The Epistle 247

PART THREE: POETRY

Introduction Kutub Kassam

I. ARABIC POETRY

1. Ibn Hani’ al-Andalusi 257

2. al-Mu’ayyad fi’l-Din al-Shirazi 260

II. PERSIAN POETRY

1. Nasir-i Khusraw 271

2. Hasan-i Mahmud-i Katib 282

3. Nizari Quhistani 285

4. Persian Poets of the post-Alamut Era 290

5. The Poetry of Central Asia 298

III PERSIAN POETRY

1. Pir Shams 309

2. Pir Sadr al-Din 311

3. Pir Hasan Kabir al-Din 315

4. Nur Muhammad Shah 318

Glossary 322

Bibliography 328

Index 339

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— —, The Empire of the Mahdi: The Rise of the Fatimids, tr. M. Bonner. Leiden, 1996.

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— —, The Fatimids and their Traditions of Learning. London, 1997.

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